Marja Holmila and Kirsimarja Raitasalo.  Gender differences in drinking: Why do they still exist?  Addiction 100(12):1763, December 2005.

Address correspondence to Marja Holmila, Alcohol and Drug Research Group, Stakes National Research and Development Centre for Welfare and Health, PO 220, 00531 Helsinki, Finland. E-mail: marja.holmila@stakes.fi.

Summer: An overview is presented of existing literature from different countries on possible mechanisms and reasons for gender differences in alcohol consumption. Existing studies show great cultural variance in patterns of alcohol use among men and women. These gender differences have been shown to be linked with many aspects of biological differences between men and women leading to women's greater vulnerability to alcohol, women's and men's differing needs, reasons and motivations related to drinking, gender-specific roles in other areas of life, and ways in which societies regulate peoples' behavior, often giving women the role of warden or moderator of others' drinking. The gender differences in drinking behavior remain considerable and are found in all cultures studied so far. Several studies have argued for reasons underlying these differences, but they still remain largely unexplained. NIAAA Glossary Terms:  AOD consumption, AOD use pattern, alcoholic beverage, gender differences, AOD sensitivity, motivation, AOD use behavior, human study, literature review

Kim Bloomfield, Ulrike Grittner, and Stephanie Kramer.  Developments in alcohol consumption in reunited Germany.  Addiction 100(12):1770, December 2005.

Address correspondence to Kim Bloomfield, Institute of Public Health, Department of Health Promotion Research, University of Southern Denmark, Niels Bohrs Vej 9–10, 6700 Esbjerg, Denmark. E-mail: kbl@health.sdu.dk.

Summary: The authors investigated changes in measures of frequency of general alcohol and beverage-specific alcohol drinking in eastern and western Germany between 1991 and 1998, using data from two nationally representative health surveys, one conducted in 1991/1992 and the other in 1998. The earlier sample comprises two separate surveys, a 1991 western German survey (n = 5,255) and a 1992 eastern German survey (n = 2,211). The sample from 1998 contains information from 5,463 people. The two 1991/1992 samples were merged to produce a single data set, comprising 7,466 cases. The 1998 sample was limited to people aged 25–69 years, the age range of the 1991/1992 surveys. The surveys included measures of current drinking, current beverage-specific drinking, weekly drinking, daily drinking, heavy drinking, and mean amount consumed per day. It was found that the prevalence of almost all measures of drinking frequency declined in both regions of Germany, for both men and woman. Decreases were larger in the East, especially for frequency of current spirits drinking and daily drinking. Despite the decreases, western women consistently consumed at higher levels than eastern women, and eastern men consumed more than western men. Moreover, gender and regional differences within the country decreased. In conclusion, overall frequency of consumption declined in Germany in the 1990s and drinking behavior became more similar in the eastern and western regions of the country. NIAAA Glossary Terms:  AOD use frequency, AOD use pattern, AOD intake per occasion, alcoholic beverage, Germany, regional differences, survey, prevalence, heavy AOD use, trend, gender differences, AOD use behavior, human study

Bogdan Wojtyniak, Jacek Moskalewicz, Jakub Stokwiszewski, and Daniel Rabczenko.  Gender-specific mortality associated with alcohol consumption in Poland in transition.  Addiction 100(12):1779, December 2005.

Address correspondence to Jacek Moskalewicz, Institute of Psychiatry and Neurology, Sobieskiego 9, 02–957 Warsaw, Poland. E-mail: moskalew@ipin.edu.pl.

Summary: This study examined the impact of rapid political and economic transitions on alcohol consumption and associated mortality in different sociodemographic segments in Poland, with particular focus on gender differences. Two causes of death associated with drinking – liver diseases and alcohol poisoning – were investigated. Mortality time series 1986–2002 were analyzed against consumption estimates and population drinking survey data. Age-standardized annual and 3-year death rates were calculated for age, gender, and place of residence subgroups of the general adult population. For education, age-standardized relative frequency of deaths or proportional mortality was calculated for four basic educational levels. Alcohol-related mortality showed great variability in response to substantial changes in alcohol consumption. Patterns of mortality and their magnitude of change corresponded with average alcohol consumption and were therefore different for men and women, different age and educational groups, and urban and rural areas. However, education level may have affected alcohol-related mortality more strongly than overall alcohol intake, particularly for acute consequences of drinking. The Polish experience illustrates that the impact of rapid political and economic transitions on alcohol consumption and associated mortality is highly differentiated and specific to gender and social class. NIAAA Glossary Terms:  Poland, AOD consumption, AOD intake per occasion, alcoholic beverage, gender differences, demographic characteristics, AODR mortality, alcoholic liver disorder, AOD poisoning, time series analysis, survey, educational level achieved, adult, gender differences, age differences, regional differences, urban area, rural area, acute AODE, social class, human study

Myriam I. Munné.  Alcohol and the economic crisis in Argentina: Recent findings.  Addiction 100(12):1790, December 2005.

Address correspondence to Myriam I. Munné, Rivadavia 4509 Piso 13 '158', (1424) Buenos Aires, Argentina. E-mail: mymu@hotmail.com.

Summary: In 2002 Argentina participated in the World Health Organization-funded Gender, Alcohol, and Culture: An International Study [GENACIS]. Four questions about the current economic crisis in Argentina were added to the original GENACIS questionnaire to determine the opinions of the general population about alcohol and the economic crisis. Gender differences in the answers to these questions were examined. Logistic regression was used to identify demographic, drinking pattern, and drinking problems variables related significantly to responses to the economic crisis questions. During the crisis people stopped or reduced going to bars and instead drank at home or at friends' homes. A large number of respondents also reported that people had changed to cheaper or lower-quality alcoholic drinks. Women were more likely to agree that the crisis had increased "escape" drinking and required spending less money on alcohol; men were more likely to agree that the crisis had led to less drinking in bars and the purchase of cheaper or lower-quality alcoholic beverages. Respondents who reported having significant others with drinking-related problems were more likely to endorse all four statements about effects of the economic crisis on drinking behavior. A qualitative approach was used to assess themes in the general comments that were recorded in the interviews. A strongly moralistic attitude towards alcohol was present in these comments, especially among women. The findings suggest that Argentina's economic crisis produced major changes in drinking patterns that differed according to gender roles and other demographic variables. The long-term effects of these changes remain to be determined as economic conditions improve. NIAAA Glossary Terms:  Argentina, economic fluctuation, economic aspects of AOD and AOD use, alcoholic beverage, economic availability or accessibility, demographic characteristics, AOD use pattern, problematic AOD use,  regression analysis, drinking venue, gender differences, survey, interview, morality, human study

Rainer Spanagel and Markus Heilig.  Addiction and its brain science.  Addiction 100(12):1813, December 2005.

Address correspondence to Rainer Spanagel, Department of Psychopharmacology, Central Institute of Mental Health (CIMH), University of Heidelberg, Mannheim 68159, Germany. E-mail: spanagel@zi-mannheim.de.

Summary: The purpose of this paper is to illustrate how modern neurobiological approaches will help to identify the neurocircuits and genes involved in addictive behavior. The current concept of addiction assumes irreversible molecular and structural changes within the brain dopamine reinforcement system, constituting the "molecular and structural switch" from controlled drug intake to compulsive drug abuse. However, these irreversible changes remain to be identified and it is suggested that in addition to the mesolimbic dopamine system, other brain systems including the mesocortical and nigrostriatal pathways as well as their non-dopaminergic feedback-loops might be involved in addictive behavior. A three-step neurobiological approach is described. Step 1 involves novel animal models and imaging techniques to identify the neuroanatomical sites mediating voluntary drug intake, reinstatement of drug-seeking behavior, relapse, loss of control, and drug intake despite negative consequences. Step 2 involves genetic approaches including quantitative trait loci (QTL)-analysis and gene expression profiling to help identify candidate genes. Step 3 involves conditional animal mutants and selective pharmacological tools for functional validation of candidate genes, followed by transfer to the human situation with further verification of candidate genes in well-phenotyped cohorts of addicted patients. This three-step neurobiological approach, which requires an interdisciplinary team including experimental psychologists, geneticists, molecular biologists, and clinical addiction researchers, will clarify where and how the addicted brain goes awry. NIAAA Glossary Terms:  addiction, AOD dependence, AOD use behavior, neurobiological theory of AODU, gene, dopamine, reinforcement, dopaminergic neuron, brain reward pathway, mesolimbic system, cerebral cortex, nigrostriatal system, animal model, AOD-seeking behavior, AODD relapse, self-control, genetic theory of AODU, quantitative trait locus, gene expression, genetic trait, phenotype, cohort study, human study

Cheryl J. Cherpitel, Yu Ye, Jason Bond, Jürgen Rehm, Vladimir Poznyak, Scott Macdonald, Martin Stafström, and Wei Hao.  Multi-level analysis of alcohol-related injury among emergency department patients: A cross-national study.  Addiction 100(12):1840, December 2005.

Address correspondence to Cheryl J. Cherpitel, Alcohol Research Group, 2000 Hearst Avenue, Berkeley, CA 94709, USA.  E-mail: ccherpitel@arg.org.

Summary: This study examined the average rate and variation of alcohol-related injury (ARI) across emergency department (ED) studies, the effect of usual drinking on likelihood of ARI, whether cross-study variation in the rate of ARI can be explained by between-study difference in usual consumption, and whether social-cultural contextual variables help explain cross-study variations after between-study difference in usual consumption has been controlled. Data were merged from the Emergency Room Collaborative Alcohol Analysis Project (ERCAAP) and the WHO Collaborative Study on Alcohol and Injuries, which together represent 28 studies in 16 countries, and include 8,423 drinking injury patients who arrived in the ED within 6 hours after injury. ARI was based on a positive blood alcohol concentration (BAC) or self-reported drinking within 6 hours prior to injury. A multi-level design and hierarchical generalized linear models were used for analysis in which patients were nested within studies. Overall ARI prevalence was 24% for positive BAC and 29% for self-report. At the patient level, log-transformed alcohol consumption in the last 12 months significantly predicted ARI. Significant variation in ARI rates was observed at the study level, with studies with higher overall average consumption reporting a higher ARI rates. When volume was controlled, societies with higher detrimental drinking pattern and higher legal level for intoxication while driving were more likely to have an increased ARI rate. In conclusion, ARI varies across EDs and countries. While it is associated with an individual's usual alcohol consumption, it is also affected by societal drinking characteristics including the aggregate volume of consumption, overall drinking pattern, and legislative policies to control drinking and related harms. NIAAA Glossary Terms:   AODR injury, alcoholic beverage, emergency care, prevalence, BAC, self report, AOD consumption, AOD use pattern, cultural patterns of drinking, legal BAC limit, drinking and driving, AOD intoxication, legal regulation, legislation, human study

Tapio Paljärvi, Pia Mäkelä, and Kari Poikolainen.  Pattern of drinking and fatal injury: A population-based follow-up study of Finnish men.  Addiction 100(12):1851, December 2005.

Address correspondence to Tapio Paljärvi, Finnish Foundation for Alcohol Studies, PO Box 220, 00531 Helsinki, Finland. E-mail: tapio.paljarvi@stakes.fi.

Summary: The aim was to determine how the frequency of drinking 1–2 drinks, 3–4 drinks, and ≥5 drinks of alcohol per occasion predicts injury mortality among the Finnish 15–69-year-old male population during 16 years of follow-up . Three alcohol surveys conducted in 1969, 1976, and 1984 were pooled and linked with mortality information from the national cause of death register. Survival time data were analyzed using Cox proportional hazard models. Drinking at the level of either 1–2 drinks or 3–4 drinks, regardless of frequency, did not elevate the risk of fatal injury whereas drinking ≥5 drinks per occasion significantly increased the risk of fatal injury in graded relation compared with those who never drank at that level. The risk was highest for those who drank five or more drinks at a time at least weekly (relative risk = 5.78, 95% confidence interval, 2.80–11.94), when adjusted for possible confounders. Thus, besides the total volume of consumption, a drinking pattern that involves alcohol drinking occasions when consumption exceeds 4 drinks at a time significantly increased the risk of fatal injury among Finnish men. The risk was highest among those who had the highest annual number of heavy drinking occasions. This finding does not support the hypothesis that alcohol tolerance would lower the risk of fatal injuries among frequent heavy drinkers. NIAAA Glossary Terms:  AOD use frequency, AOD intake per occasion, AODR injury, AODR accident mortality, alcoholic beverage, Finland, survey, follow-up study, statistical modeling, risk analysis, risk factors, relative risk, heavy AOD use, AOD tolerance, hypothesis testing, human study

James R. McKay.  Is there a case for extended interventions for alcohol and drug use disorders?  Addiction 100(11):1594-1610, November 2005.

Address correspondence to James R. McKay, University of Pennsylvania, Treatment Research Center, 3900 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA. E-mail: mckay_j@mail.trc.upenn.edu.

Summary: To determine whether there is evidence to support extended interventions (>6 months) for individuals with alcohol or other drug use disorders, literature on extended behavioral and pharmacotherapy interventions was reviewed, along with findings from studies of extended monitoring and monitoring paired with adjunctive counseling. Studies were identified through database searches, citations in previous reviews, and examination of recent volumes of relevant journals. Key terms were defined, and a theoretical rationale was presented for extended treatment. Several adaptive treatment studies that made use of stepped care or continuation protocols were also described. The primary outcomes considered were alcohol and drug use during the intervention and post-intervention follow-ups. Other outcomes were examined when they were included in the articles reviewed. Most of the studies provided support for the effectiveness of extended care for alcohol and drug abusers, whether by face-to-face contact or by telephone. These findings held across all types of interventions that were examined (e.g., behavioral treatment, pharmacotherapy, and monitoring). However, only a few studies directly compared extended and standard length version of the same intervention. New developments in addiction treatment with implications for extended care models are also described and discussed. The findings indicate that extended therapeutic contact with individuals with alcohol and other drug disorders appears to promote better long-term outcomes than "treatment as usual," although more studies comparing extended and standard versions of interventions are needed. NIAAA Glossary Terms:  literature review, behavior therapy, drug therapy, treatment factors, treatment duration, treatment outcome, AOD use, AOD abuse, AOD dependence, addiction,  interview, patient monitoring, comparative study, human study

Jim Orford, Lorna Templeton, Richard Velleman, and Alex Copello.  Family members of relatives with alcohol, drug and gambling problems: A set of standardized questionnaires for assessing stress, coping and strain.  Addiction 100(11):1611-1624, November 2005.

Address correspondence to Jim Orford, Alcohol, Drugs and Addiction Research Group, School of Psychology, The University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK. Tel. 0121-414-4918/7195, Fax: 0121-414-4897, E-mail: j.f.orford@bham.ac.uk.

Summary: This article describes a set of standard questionnaire measures for assessing the needs of family members of persons with alcohol, drug, or gambling problems and presents evidence of their reliability and validity from a series of related studies, including cross-sectional and repeated-measurement studies. Participants included family members affected by and concerned about the problem drinking or drug-taking of close relatives in treatment and non-treatment samples in the United Kingdom (white and Sikh) and Mexico City, family members of untreated heavy drinkers, and family members of problem gamblers. Four measures derived from a stress-strain-coping-support model of alcohol, drugs, and gambling problems and the family were used: Family Member Impact scale (FMI), Symptom Rating Test (SRT), Coping Questionnaire (CQ), and Hopefulness-Hopelessness scale (HOPE). FMI, SRT and CQ assess stress, strain, and coping respectively. The exact role of HOPE in the model was not determined. The support component was not measured. Results from several studies support the internal reliability, discriminant and construct validity, and sensitivity to change of the SRT and its two constituent scales (psychological and physical symptoms) and at least two subscales of the CQ (engaged and tolerant-inactive coping). Although the CQ withdrawal coping subscale shows evidence of satisfactory reliability and some evidence of discriminant validity, it may need further study. Evidence suggests that the FMI is reliable and valid and may have a factor structure that will support future research (distinguishing worrying behavior from active disturbance). HOPE, a new measure, shows promising characteristics. Thus a set of standard measures is available to help assess the needs of concerned and affected family members, derived from an explicit model of the family in relation to excessive drinking, drug taking, or gambling. It may have a role to play in correcting the current neglect of the needs of such family members, who are estimated to be nearly a million adults in Britain alone. NIAAA Glossary Terms:  questionnaire, validation study, problematic AOD use, pathological gambling, needs assessment, family support, family intervention, stress, psychological stress, coping, reliability (research methods), discriminant validity, construct validity, human study

Tanya Chikritzhs, Tim Stockwell, and Richard Pascal.  The impact of the Northern Territory's Living With Alcohol program, 1992–2002: Revisiting the evaluation.  Addiction 100(11):1625-1636, November 2005.

Address correspondence to Tanya Chikritzhs, GPO Box U1987, Perth, Western Australia 6845. Tel: 08-9266-1609, E-mail: t.n.chikritzhs@curtin.edu.au.

Summary: The effects of the Living With Alcohol (LWA) program and the LWA Alcoholic Beverage Levy on alcohol-attributable deaths in the Northern Territory (NT), Australia, were evaluated, controlling for simultaneous trends in death rates from a control region and non-alcohol related death trends in the NT, between 1985 and 2002. The LWA program was introduced in 1992 with funding from a special NT levy on beverages with alcohol content  >3% by volume. The tax was removed in 1997 but the LWA program continued to be funded by the federal government until 2002. Trends in age standardized rates of acute and chronic alcohol-attributable deaths in the NT were examined before, during, and after the combined implementation of the LWA program and tax and before and during the full length of the program. Auto-regressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) time series analyses included internal and external control series and adjustments for possible confounders. Separate estimates were made for Indigenous and non-Indigenous NT residents. When combined, the tax and the LWA program were associated with significant declines in acute alcohol-attributable deaths in the NT as well as Indigenous deaths between 1992 and 1997. A significant but delayed decline in chronic deaths was evident towards the end of the study period between 1998 and 2002. The combined impact of the LWA program tax and the programs and services it funded reduced the burden of alcohol-attributable injury to the NT in the short term and may have contributed to a reduction in chronic illness in the longer term. The results show the effectiveness of combining alcohol taxes with comprehensive programs and services to reduce the harm from alcohol, and emphasize the need to distinguish between the acute and chronic effects of alcohol in population level studies. NIAAA Glossary Terms:   AODR mortality, AODR injury, AODR injury prevention, acute AODE, chronic AODE, Australia, taxes, alcoholic beverage, prevention program, time series analysis, attributable risk, controlled study, confounding variables, population study, ecological study

Helen Matzger, Lee Ann Kaskutas, and Constance Weisner.  Reasons for drinking less and their relationship to sustained remission from problem drinking.  Addiction 100(11):1637-1646, November 2005.

Address correspondence to Helen Matzger, Alcohol Research Group, Public Health Institute, 2000 Hearst Street, Suite 300, Berkeley, CA 94709, USA. Tel: 510-642-5208, ext. 242, Fax: 510-642-7175, E-mail: hmatzger@arg.org.

Summary: Representative general population and treated samples were compared on their reasons for drinking less and whether particular reasons were related to sustained remission from problem drinking for either group. Problem drinking adults (N = 659) in a Northern California county identified through a probability survey in the general population (n = 239) and a survey of consecutive admissions to public and private alcohol and drug programs (n = 420), who reported drinking less at the one-year follow-up and provided reasons for reducing their drinking, were assessed 1-, 3-, and 5-years post-baseline regarding their problem drinking status. Logistic regression models were used to predict sustained remission from problem drinking. The treated sample endorsed a majority of reasons in significantly higher proportions than the general population sample, but the same three reasons were significant for both groups in predicting sustained remission from problem drinking: hitting rock bottom, experiencing a traumatic event, and undergoing a spiritual awakening. Interventions by medical personnel and family members were either non-significant predictors or significantly negatively related to sustained improvement for both general population and treated problem drinkers. In conclusion, general population and treatment samples have similar reasons for cutting down as they relate to sustained remission from problem drinking. NIAAA Glossary Terms:  problematic AOD use, heavy AOD use, AOD dependence, remission, treatment completion, treatment outcome, population study, comparative study, survey, AOD use pattern, AOD consumption, AOD intake per occasion, regression analysis, predictive factor, life circumstances, life events, trauma, role of spirituality in recovery, human study

Joceline Pomerleau, Martin McKee, Richard Rose, Christian W. Haerpfer, David Rotman, and Sergej Tumanov.  Drinking in the Commonwealth of Independent States: Evidence from eight countries.  Addiction 100(11):1647-1668, November 2005.

Address correspondence to Joceline Pomerleau, 8 rue de Rémusat, 75016 Paris, France. Tel. + 33-1-45-20-16-71, Fax: + 33-1-45-20-16-71, E-mail: joceline.pomerleau@lshtm.ac.uk.

Summary: The frequency of alcohol consumption and beverage preferences were examined in a cross-sectional study of eight countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS): Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, and Ukraine. The participants were representative samples of the adult population of each country (total N = 18,428; response rates: 71–88%). A standardized questionnaire was administered by trained interviewers to examine alcohol consumption frequency and usual intakes of beer, wine, and strong spirits. Alcohol abstinence was reported by 11%–34% of males and 26%–71% of females and was lowest in the Russian Federation and Belarus, where spirits-drinking is traditional. Consumption  was particularly high in Kyrgyzstan and Georgia, which have a relatively low frequency of alcohol consumption but large alcohol intake per occasion (particularly Georgia). In contrast, Moldovan respondents drank frequently, but consumed less per occasion. As expected, spirits were consumed in largest amounts in traditional spirits-drinking countries as well as Armenia, and wine was consumed most in traditional wine-drinking countries. Beer consumption was relatively high in Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan (males), particularly in young respondents. Although international comparisons of alcohol intake should be interpreted cautiously, this study suggests that drinking patterns in the countries examined are not entirely typical of usual dry/wet drinking cultures, and confirms that the CIS is very diverse in terms of drinking patterns and beverage preferences. The study provides an important baseline for future comparisons as markets open to new products, as has been the case elsewhere in Europe. NIAAA Glossary Terms:   Commonwealth of Independent States, Armenia, Belarus, Georgia (Republic), Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Ukraine, AOD use frequency, AOD preference, AOD nonuse, AOD consumption, AOD intake per occasion, beer, wine, distilled alcoholic beverage, survey, questionnaire, gender differences, international AODR problems, international differences, human study

Robert E. Mann, Reginald G. Smart, Brian R. Rush, Rosely Flam Zalcman, and Helen Suurvali.  Cirrhosis mortality in Ontario: Effects of alcohol consumption and Alcoholics Anonymous participation.  Addiction 100(11):1669-1679, November 2005.

Address correspondence to Robert E. Mann, Social, Prevention and Health Policy Research Department, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 33 Russell Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 2S1, Canada. Tel: 416-535-8501, ext. 4496, Fax: 416-595-6899, E-mail: robert_mann@camh.net.

Summary: The authors tested the hypotheses that cirrhosis mortality rates are positively associated with per capita alcohol consumption and negatively associated with Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) membership rates, using data from the province of Ontario, Canada, for 1968 to 1989. Time-series analyses with auto-regressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) modeling were applied to male and female cirrhosis mortality rates in three age groups: 15–44, 45–64 and ≥65 years. Missing AA membership data were interpolated using two methods: linear splines and cubic splines. In general, cirrhosis mortality rates were positively associated with alcohol consumption and negatively associated with AA membership. These effects were not statistically significant for some age and gender combinations. Limitations of this study include restrictions in the length of series available and in the ability to infer causality. Nevertheless, the findings are consistent with previous research demonstrating that per capita consumption is a strong determinant of cirrhosis mortality and that higher levels of AA membership can reduce cirrhosis mortality. NIAAA Glossary Terms:  alcoholic liver cirrhosis, AODR mortality, AOD consumption, Alcoholics Anonymous, time series analysis, regression analysis, statistical association, hypothesis testing, human study

Frances Finnigan, Daniela Schulze, Jonathan Smallwood, and Anders Helander.  The effects of self-administered alcohol-induced "hangover" in a naturalistic setting on psychomotor and cognitive performance and subjective state.  Addiction 100(11):1680-1689, November 2005.

Address correspondence to Frances Finnigan, Department of Psychology, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow G4 0BA, UK. E-mail: ffi@gcal.ac.uk.

Summary: This study examined whether having an alcohol-induced hangover impairs psychomotor and cognitive performance. The participants were male and female social drinkers (N = 71) who were tested twice in a naturalistic setting, once at baseline and once after exposure to the study condition. They were randomized into a control group (n = 33) who returned for testing on a prearranged date and a group who were instructed to return the day after a self-determined heavy drinking session (n = 38). Of the hangover group, 13 participants still had a blood alcohol concentration >1 mg/100 ml at the time of testing and were analyzed separately. All participants were students. Psychomotor performance was assessed by means of a battery of psychomotor tasks, rate of information processing was tested by the Speed and Capacity of Language Processing Test (SCOLP), and subjective state was assessed by questionnaire measures. All participants in the hangover group reported subjective and physical symptoms of hangover on the second testing session. Performance was significantly impaired on the hits-key components of the vigilance task, was less accurate on the primary and secondary reaction time tasks, and showed greater dispersion in range of ability in the "acute and hangover" participants compared to controls. Probe memory revealed no significant group effect. Ratings of subjective state revealed significant group differences for the variables "ability to drive," "concentrate," and "react quickly" as well as "tiredness." The groups did not differ in performance on the SCOLP. NIAAA Glossary Terms:   hangover (any AOD substance), alcoholic beverage, psychomotor impairment, cognitive ability, social drinking, randomized controlled trial, controlled study, BAC, questionnaire, reaction time, impaired driver, fatigue, human study

Laust H. Mortensen, Thorkild I. A. Sørensen, and Morten Grønbæk.  Intelligence in relation to later beverage preference and alcohol intake.  Addiction 100(10):1445-1452, October 2005.
 
Address correspondence to Morten Grønbæk, Centre for Alcohol Research, National Institute of Public Health, Øster Farimagsgade 5, DK-1399 Copenhagen K, Denmark.  Tel: +45 39 20 77 77, Fax: +45 39 20 80 10, E-mail: mg@niph.dk.

Summary: Because the health effects of drinking may be related to psychological characteristics influencing both health and drinking habits, the relationship between intelligence, later beverage preference, and alcohol intake was examined in a prospective study. The participants were 900 obese men and a random population sample of 899 young men. Measurements included intelligence testing at the draft board examinations over a 22-year period (1956-1977), percentage of wine of total alcohol intake (wine %), preference for wine (wine % >50), heavy drinking (>21 drinks/week) and non-drinking (<1 drink/ week), and vocational education from follow-ups of the initial study sample in 1981-1983 and 1992-1994. A strong dose-response-like association was found between intelligence quotient (IQ) in young adulthood and beverage preferences later in life in both the obese and the random population sample. At the first follow-up a 30-point advantage in IQ [2 standard deviations (SD)] was found to be associated with preference for wine over beer and spirits (odds ratio [OR] = 1.7 (1.3-2.4). At the second follow-up the corresponding OR was 2.8 (2.0-3.9). A 30-point advantage in IQ was associated with an OR for being a non-drinker of 0.5 (0.3-0.8) at the first second follow-ups. Whether the association between IQ, beverage preferences, and non-drinking could be explained by socioeconomic status (SES) was examined at the second follow-up. It was found that the association between IQ and non-drinking disappeared when controlling for SES. The association between IQ and beverage preferences was weakened but remained statistically significant. IQ was not associated with heavy drinking. In conclusion, a high IQ was associated with preference for wine to other beverages, regardless of socioeconomic status, but IQ was not related similarly to alcohol consumption. NIAAA Glossary Terms:  AOD consumption, AOD intake per occasion, intelligence level., wine, beer, distilled alcoholic beverage, AOD preference, statistical association, obesity, random sample, follow-up study, dose-response relationship, young adult, risk factors, risk analysis, relative risk, socioeconomic status, controlled study, human study

Ellen J. Amundsen, Ingeborg Rossow, and Svetlana Skurtveit.  Drinking pattern among adolescents with immigrant and Norwegian backgrounds: A two-way influence?  Addiction 100(10):1453-1463, October 2005.

Address correspondence to Ellen J. Amundsen, Norwegian Institute for Alcohol and Drug Research, PO Box 565 Sentrum, NO-0105 Oslo, Norway. Tel. +47 22 34 04 32, Fax: +47 22 34 04 01, E-mail: eja@sirus.no.

Summary: The association between drinking behavior among adolescents with both immigrant and native backgrounds with aspects of acculturation was assessed based on a cross-sectional school survey among Norwegian students aged 15 to 16 years. The study sample consisted of Oslo 10th-graders during spring 2000 and 2001 and included students with an immigrant background (n = 1,213) and students with a Norwegian background (n = 4,627). Indicators of the length of the acculturation process were assessed as first versus second generation and in terms of length of stay in Norway. The proportion of Muslim students in school was an indicator of alcohol nonuse in the social environment. Drinking behavior was assessed as drinking alcohol ever, drinking frequency, and intoxication frequency. Compared with adolescents with a Norwegian background, a smaller proportion of immigrant students were current drinkers, frequent drinkers, and drank to intoxication. Adjusted two-level analyses showed that alcohol nonuse was more common among immigrant students with a short stay in Norway and in schools with a large proportion of Muslim students. Among students with a Norwegian background there was a larger proportion of nonusers, and those who drank did so less frequently and were less frequently intoxicated the larger the proportion of Muslim students there was in their school. It was concluded that drinking behavior among adolescents in a multicultural and heterogeneous society seems to reflect a bi-directional acculturation process where the majority population tend to adapt to the behaviors of the immigrant population which in turn, to a varying degree, tends to adapt to the behavior of the majority population. NIAAA Glossary Terms:  AOD use behavior, AOD nonuse, AOD use frequency, immigrant, AOD intoxication, Norway, Islam, spiritual and religious regulation of behavior, adolescent, underage drinking, acculturation, comparative study, human study

Haske van der Vorst, Rutger C. M. E. Engels, Wim Meeus, Maja Dekovic, and Jan Van Leeuwe.  The role of alcohol-specific socialization in adolescents' drinking behaviour.  Addiction 100(10):1464-1476, October 2005.

Address correspondence to Haske van der Vorst, Institute of Family and Child Care Studies, Radboud University Nijmegen, PO Box 9104, 6500 HE Nijmegen, the Netherlands. Tel: 31 24 361 5767, Fax: 31 24 361 2776, E-mail: h.vandervorst@pwo.ru.nl.

Summary: The aims were to determine which alcohol-specific socialization practices are related to adolescents' alcohol use, and whether parents differ in their alcohol-specific socialization towards their children. In a sample of families (N = 428), both parents and two adolescents (aged 13-16 years) completed a questionnaire at home about alcohol-specific parenting and their own alcohol use. Based on the reports of each family member, three different models of alcohol-specific socialization were formulated: from the perspective of the siblings, the mother, and the father. Structural equation modeling generally showed the same associations between alcohol-specific socialization and drinking of younger and older adolescents. The strongest association was found for providing alcohol-specific rules. Applying strict rules about alcohol use was negatively related to adolescents' alcohol use; this was also the case for having confidence in the effectiveness of alcohol-specific socialization. Surprisingly, frequency of communication about alcohol issues was positively associated with adolescents' alcohol consumption. This was one of the first studies to examine associations between alcohol-specific socialization and adolescents' drinking using a between- and a within-family design. Strong associations were found between alcohol-specific socialization (particularly enforcing rules) and adolescent alcohol use. Although parents strongly differentiated their socialization practices between children, no differences in associations between alcohol-specific socialization and drinking were found between older and younger adolescents. NIAAA Glossary Terms:  adolescent, underage drinking, parental monitoring, parental AOD use, family attitude toward AOD, parent-child relations, family environment, socialization, human study

B. Hock, M. Schwarz, I. Domke, V. P. Grunert, M. Wuertemberger, U. Schiemann, S. Horster, C. Limmer, G. Stecker, and M. Soyka.  Validity of carbohydrate-deficient transferrin (%CDT), [gamma]-glutamyltransferase ([gamma]-GT) and mean corpuscular erythrocyte volume (MCV) as biomarkers for chronic alcohol abuse: a study in patients with alcohol dependence and liver disorders of non-alcoholic and alcoholic origin.  Addiction 100(10):1477-1486, October 2005.

Address correspondence to Bettina Hock, Klinik für Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie Ludwig-Maximilian-University, Nußbaumstraße 7 D-80336 Munich, Germany. E-mail: bettina.hock@med.uni-muenchen.de.

Summary: The clinical performances of carbohydrate-deficient transferrin (%CDT), gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT), and mean corpuscular erythrocyte volume (MCV) as biomarkers for alcoholism were compared with a special focus on patients suffering from liver diseases. Well-characterized groups of alcohol-dependent patients with current consumption (ALC patients, n = 101), and relevant control groups (115 social drinkers, 46 patients with nonspecifically increased GGT, 51 hepatitis patients, and 20/31 patients with non-alcoholic cirrhosis) were included in the study. Inclusion criteria for subjects who were regular heavy drinkers were a positive Alcohol Use Disorders IdentificationTest (AUDIT) score, standard diagnostic criteria (ICD-10 and DSM-IV), and blood drawn within 4 days of last drinking. Median AUDIT scores of patients without and with regular heavy drinking were 1-3 and 27 respectively. The following medians and 95th percentiles were obtained for %CDT: social drinkers 2.2/3.0, patients with nonspecifically increased GGT 2.1/3.0, hepatitis 2.0/4.4, non-alcoholic cirrhosis 2.4/4.8, alcoholic cirrhosis 3.0/5.9, ALC patients 3.9/14.9. Differences between patients without and with alcohol abuse were highly significant (p < 0.001). Males and females did not differ in %CDT values. There was no correlation between %CDT values, GGT, MCV, and the amount of alcohol consumed in ALC patients; 3.0%CDT (95th percentile social drinkers) is proposed as a cut-off for the test used (Tina-quant®%CDT 2nd-generation). At this cut-off, the sensitivity for ALC patients was 73.3% compared to GGT/MCV sensitivity of 71.3%/64.4%. Multivariate analysis performed at 95% specificity resulted in improved sensitivity by combining %CDT with GGT (83.2%). Further sensitivity enhancement to 88.1% was obtained by combing %CDT, GGT, and MCV. The diagnostic specificity of %CDT calculated at the cut-off of 3% was 93.5% in patients with nonspecifically increased GGT, 88.2% in hepatitis patients, and 70.0% in patients with non-alcoholic cirrhosis. %CDT was more specific in these patient groups than MCV, and especially more than GGT (specificity in hepatitis 52.9%, and 35.0% in non-alcoholic cirrhosis). In conclusion, %CDT has high value to support diagnosis of alcohol use disorders, and its specificity in patients with liver disorders is superior to that of GGT and MCV. NIAAA Glossary Terms:   carbohydrate-deficient transferrin, gamma glutamyl transferase,mean corpuscular volume, comparative study, alcohol use test, AOD consumption, social AOD use, social AOD use, AOD abuse, AOD dependence, alcoholic liver cirrhosis, liver cirrhosis, hepatitis, diagnostic criteria, alcohol use disorder classification, specificity and sensitivity of measurement, correlation analysis, human study

Paul Willner, Darren James, and Michael Morgan.  Excessive alcohol consumption and dependence on amphetamine are associated with parallel increases in subjective ratings of both 'wanting' and 'liking'.  Addiction 100(10):1487-1495, October 2005.

Address correspondence to Paul Willner, Department of Psychology, University of Wales Swansea, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK. E-mail: p.willner@swan.ac.uk.

Summary: A tenet of the incentive sensitization theory of drug addiction is that as drugs become increasingly wanted, they often become increasingly less liked. This study tested the hypothesis that in nonclinical samples, dependence on amphetamines and excessive alcohol use are associated with increased "wanting" but decreased "liking" for the drug. In two studies, the Desires for Alcohol Questionnaire (DAQ) was administered to 380 recreational drinkers, and the Desires for Speed Questionnaire (DSQ) and the Leeds Dependence Questionnaire (LDQ) were administered to amphetamine users (n = 174). Scales were derived from the DAQ and DSQ representing craving and positive and negative reinforcement. Craving and positive reinforcement were taken as measures of alcohol or amphetamine "wanting" and "liking" respectively. Scores on all three DAQ scales increased monotonically as a function of the extent of alcohol consumption. Scores on all three DSQ scales increased monotonically as a function of dependence as measured by the LDQ. "Liking" for amphetamine was unrelated to time since the drug was last taken. (These data were not available for alcohol.) In conclusion, the finding that "wanting" increased as a function of dependence on amphetamine or level of consumption in the case of alcohol is as predicted by the incentive sensitization theory, but the finding that "liking" also increased as a function of dependence or excess is the opposite of the predicted effects. While not refuting the incentive sensitization theory directly, the results question the validity of one of the theory's tenets. NIAAA Glossary Terms:  AOD craving, AOD-seeking behavior, AOD consumption, multiple drug use, illicit drug, amphetamines, alcoholic beverage, heavy AOD use, AOD dependence, recreational drug, questionnaire, positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, predictive factor, validation study, hypothesis testing, human study

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Keith Humphreys, Kenneth R. Weingardt, Doyanne Horst, Asha A. Joshi, and John W. Finney.  Prevalence and predictors of research participant eligibility criteria in alcohol treatment outcome studies, 1970-98.  Addiction 100(9):1249-1257, September 2005.

Address correspondence to Keith Humphreys, Program Evaluation and Resource Center, VAPAHCS (152-MPD), 795 Willow Road, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA, Tel: 650-617-2746, Fax: 650-617-2736, E-mail: knh@stanford.edu

Summary: The eligibility criteria of alcohol treatment outcome studies (N = 683) conducted between 1970 and 1998 were coded into 14 general categories. Predictors of the use of eligibility criteria were then examined. Patients were most often excluded from studies because of their level of alcohol problems (39.1% of studies), comorbid psychiatric problems (37.8%), past or concurrent alcohol treatment (31.8%), co-occurring medical conditions (31.6%), and because they were deemed non-compliant and unmotivated (31.5%). The number of eligibility criteria increased from the 1970s through the 1990s, and was positively associated with funding from the US National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) and from the private sector, lack of an inpatient/residential treatment condition, use of pharmacotherapy, and a randomized, multiple-condition study design. Principal investigators with doctoral degrees used more eligibility criteria than those with lower degrees. In conclusion, participant eligibility criteria are used extensively in alcohol treatment outcome research, and vary significantly across historical periods, funders, and research designs. The authors recommend fuller reporting of the details of subject eligibility criteria and excluded patients and evaluation of how eligibility criteria affect the cost, feasibility, and generalizability of treatment outcome research. NIAAA Glossary Terms:  AOD dependence, treatment outcome, treatment research, survey of research, research in practice, predictive factor, comorbidity, mentally ill, patient AODU history, patient compliance, motivation, statistical association, research funding, inpatient care, residential facility, study design, educational level achieved, literature review, human study

Denise Herd.  Changes in the prevalence of alcohol use in rap song lyrics, 1979-97.  Addiction 100(9):1258-1269, September 2005.

Address correspondence to Denise Herd, 790 Spruce Street, Berkeley, CA 94707, USA, E-mail: tiara@calmail.berkeley.edu

Summary: The role of changing images of drinking and alcoholic beverage use in rap music was explored from its beginnings in the United States in the late 1970s to the late 1990s. The Billboard and Gavin rating charts were used to select a sample of 341 rap music song lyrics released from 1979 to 1997. Song lyrics were coded for music genres, alcohol beverage types and brand names, drinking behaviors, drinking contexts, intoxication, attitudes towards alcohol, and consequences of drinking. From 1979 to 1997 there was a fivefold increase in songs with references to alcohol (from 8% to 44%). Songs exhibiting positive attitudes rose from 43% to 73%; and brand name mentions increased from 46% to 71%. Compared to previous years, there were significant increases after 1994 in songs mentioning champagne and liquor, mainly expensive brand names. There were also significant increases in references to alcohol to signify glamor and wealth, and using alcohol with drugs and for recreational purposes. The findings also showed that alcohol use in rap music was much more likely to result in positive than negative consequences. Many of these findings are consistent with the idea that rap music has been profoundly affected by commercial forces and the marketing of alcoholic beverages. It is also possible that the increase in references to alcoholic beverages in rap music, particularly spirits, is a reflection of a broader advertising culture that increasingly associates African Americans with alcohol use. NIAAA Glossary Terms:  alcoholic beverage, AOD use, popular culture, entertainment, performing arts, portrayal of AODU in the arts and literature, fermented alcoholic beverage, distilled alcoholic beverage, attitude toward AOD, multiple drug use, AOD use as an adjunct to recreation, African American, human study

Sander M. Bot, Rutger C. M. E. Engels, and Ronald A. Knibbe.  The effects of alcohol expectancies on drinking behaviour in peer groups: Observations in a naturalistic setting.  Addiction 100(9):1270-1279, September 2005.

Address correspondence to Sander M. Bot, Behavioural Science Institute, University of Nijmegen, PO Box 9104, 6500 HE Nijmegen, the Netherlands, Tel: +31 (0) 24 361 57 87, Fax: +31 (0) 24 361 27 76, E-mail: s.bot@pwo.ru.nl

Summary: The role of alcohol expectancies in predicting drinking behavior was studied in existing peer groups of young adults in a naturalistic setting. Young adults were invited to join an experiment with their peer group in a bar annex laboratory. During 50 minutes in the experiment, their activities, social behavior, and drinking behavior were observed with digital video and audio equipment. The participants (N = 238) were in 28 peer groups, each consisting of seven to nine people, with relationships ranging from intimate relations and close friendships to being acquaintances. Information on drinking behavior from observations and questionnaire data on alcohol expectancies provided the opportunity to examine how and which expectancies are related to actual drinking patterns. Multiple regression and multi-level analyses were applied. Expectancies on the positive and arousing effects of alcohol consumption were related to alcohol consumption in this naturalistic, social drinking situation, in addition to group effects of drinking. No relationship was found between drinking and expectancies on the negative and sedative effects of alcohol. NIAAA Glossary Terms:  AOD use behavior, AOD use pattern, AOD consumption, social AOD use, expectancy theory of AODU, positive AOD expectancies, negative AOD expectancies, predictive factor, young adult, peer group, laboratory study, social behavior, participant observation, questionnaire, regression analysis, human study

Bryan Rodgers, Timothy D. Windsor, Kaarin J. Anstey, Keith B. G. Dear, Anthony F. Jorm, and Helen Christensen.  Non-linear relationships between cognitive function and alcohol consumption in young, middle-aged and older adults: The PATH Through Life Project.  Addiction 100(9):1280-1290, September 2005.

Address correspondence to Bryan Rodgers, National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia, Tel: +61 26125 0399, E-mail: bryan.rodgers@anu.edu.au

Summary: Cross-sectional general population samples of three age cohorts in Canberra and Queanbeyan, Australia, were studied to investigate associations, including non-linear relationships, between cognitive function and alcohol consumption, testing for moderating effects of age and sex and for differences across outcome measures. The participants (N = 7,485) were selected from the electoral rolls and included men and women aged 20-24 years (n = 2,404), 40-44 years (n = 2,530), and 60-64 years (n = 2,551). Self-report data using hand-held computers provided weekly alcohol consumption from the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) frequency, quantity, and binge-drinking items, and sociodemographic factors. Spot-the-Word, digits backwards, the Symbol-Digit Modalities Test (SDMT), immediate recall, and reaction-time tests were conducted by trained interviewers. Although findings varied across dependent variables, light drinkers (up to 20/10 g alcohol per day in men/women respectively) generally tended to perform better than abstainers, occasional drinkers, or hazardous drinkers (>40/20 g per day in men/women). Poorer performance of hazardous drinkers was seen only in men, whereas that of abstainers was evident in both sexes but was stronger in women. After adjustment for education and race, male hazardous drinkers no longer performed significantly worse than light drinkers, whereas male and female abstainers and occasional drinkers still did so. Further investigation is needed to determine what factors contribute to the poorer cognitive function of abstainers compared to light drinkers. NIAAA Glossary Terms:  cognitive ability, AOD consumption, cross-sectional study, cohort study, Australia, age differences, gender difference, survey, self report, alcohol use test, AOD use frequency, AOD intake per occasion, binge AOD use, sociodemographic variables, psychological performance test, memory, reaction time, light AOD use, AOD nonuse, AOD abstinence, hazardous drinking, human study

Kaarin J. Anstey, Timothy D. Windsor, Bryan Rodgers, Anthony F. Jorm, and Helen Christensen.  Lower cognitive test scores observed in alcohol abstainers are associated with demographic, personality, and biological factors: The PATH Through Life Project.  Addiction 100(9):1291-1301, September 2005.

Address correspondence to Kaarin Anstey, Centre for Mental Health Reseach, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia, Tel: +61 26125 8410, Fax: +61 26125 0733, E-mail: kaarin.anstey@anu.edu.au.

Summary: The objective was to identify variables that explain the association between alcohol abstention and cognitive performance. It was hypothesized that demographic and personality variables would be important for explaining the association in all age cohorts, but that health variables would be more important in the older age-cohorts. Three age cohorts (20-24, 40-44, and 60-64 years) were sampled randomly (total N = 7,485) in the cities of Canberra and Queanbeyan, Australia. Data from 602 alcohol abstainers and 4,158 light or moderate drinkers were used in the study. Scales measuring demographic, health and personality variables and cognitive and physical tests were administered. Participants drinking at hazardous or harmful levels were excluded from the analysis. A range of demographic and physical function measures partially explained the finding that abstainers had lower cognitive test scores. The effects of independent variables were largest in the 60-64-year-old age group with a trend for physical variables such as lung function and grip strength to become more important in the older age groups. Most of the effect remained unexplained in the 20-24-year-olds. In conclusion, there is evidence that poorer cognitive test performance by abstainers reflects in part selection effects and poorer physical functioning, but does not appear to be due to mental or physical health conditions or personality. NIAAA Glossary Terms:  AOD abstention, light AOD use, moderate AOD use, hazardous drinking, cognitive ability, hypothesis testing, cohort study, random sample, Australia, demographic characteristics, physical health, personality trait, cognitive ability, psychological performance test, age differences, elderly, young adult, human study

Xavier Noël, Martial Van der Linden, Mathieu d'Acremont, Maud Colmant, Catherine Hanak, Isidore Pelc, Paul Verbanck, and Antoine Bechara.  Cognitive biases toward alcohol-related words and executive deficits in polysubstance abusers with alcoholism.  Addiction100(9):1302-1309, September 2005.

Address correspondence to Xavier Noël, Clinic of Addictions, Salle 72, CHU Brugmann, 4, place Van Gehuchten, 1020 Bruxelles
Belgium, Fax: (++32) 24772162, E-mail: xnoel@ulb.ac.be

Summary: Cognitive biases for alcohol-related cues on executive function tasks involving mental flexibility and response inhibition were studied in alcoholic multiple substance abusers (AMSA). The responses to alcohol-related cues of detoxified AMSA (n = 30) and a control group of healthy non-addicts (n = 30) were compared. The response times and the accuracy of responses to targets and distracters were measured using the Alcohol Shifting Task, a variant of the go/no-go paradigm. Sometimes the alcohol-related words were the targets for the "go" response, with neutral words as distracters, sometimes the reverse. Several shifts in the type of the target occurred during the task. Compared to controls, AMSA were generally slower to respond to targets, but the group difference was smaller when alcohol-related words were the targets. A signal detection analysis also indicated that AMSA had more difficulties discriminating between targets and distracters and showed more signs of decision bias, reflecting increased readiness to respond to both targets and distracters, but these discrimination and inhibition deficits were more pronounced when alcohol-related words were the targets. These weaknesses were more pronounced in AMSA after shifting the targets from alcohol-related to neutral words, or vice versa. The results suggest that AMSA have cognitive biases towards information related to alcohol, and that these biases, as well as the poor executive functions (lower mental flexibility and response inhibition), might be responsible for their failure to maintain abstinence. NIAAA Glossary Terms:  AOD dependence, cue reactivity, cognitive ability, inhibition, data collection from mental responses, multiple AOD use, controlled study, disorder of higher mental process, AOD abstinence, patient compliance, human study

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Kari Poikolainen, Jussi Vahtera, Marianna Virtanen, Anne Linna, and Mika Kivimäki.  Alcohol and coronary heart disease risk- Is there an unknown confounder?  Addiction 100(8):1150, August 2005.

Address correspondence to Kari Poikolainen, Finnish Foundation for Alcohol Studies, PO Box 220, FIN-0053, Helsinki, Finland; Tel: +358-9-3967-2003, Fax: +358-9-3967-2170, E-mail: kari.poikolainen@stakes.fi.

Summary: A population-based cross-sectional study was conducted to evaluate whether confounding by known or suspected risk factors is likely to explain the lower coronary heart disease risk among light alcohol drinkers compared with never-drinkers. Hypertension, body mass index (BMI), diabetes, depression, sleep disturbances, smoking, physical activity, life satisfaction, psychological distress, trait anxiety, independent life events, dependent life events, length of working hours, job control, job strain, and effort-reward imbalance were compared between never-drinkers and light drinkers (<70 g of alcohol a week). Data on 41,099 participants (6,222 men, 34,877 women) were derived from two ongoing cohort studies, the 10-Town Study and the Finnish Hospital Personnel Study, in Finland in 2000-2002. Never-drinkers and light drinkers differed significantly in 7 of the 16 risk factors studied. Five of the differences favored never-drinkers and two showed a disadvantage. The latter were low BMI and low leisure-time physical activity, both more common among never-drinkers than among light drinkers. In contrast, smoking, sleep disturbances, trait anxiety, effort-reward imbalance and dependent life events were less common among never-drinkers than among light drinkers. It was concluded that none of the risk factors studied was a likely candidate for an unknown confounder. NIAAA Glossary Terms:   cross-sectional study, evaluation study, risk factors, coronary artery disorder, light AOD use, AOD nonuse, AOD intake per occasion, comparative study, hypertensive disorder, body mass index, diabetes, emotional and psychiatric depression, sleep disorder, smoking, physical activity, satisfaction, life event, psychological stress, anxiety, occupational stress, cohort study, confounding variable, human study

Björn Trolldal and William Ponicki.  Alcohol price elasticities in control and license states in the United States, 1982-99.  Addiction 100(8):1158, August 2005.

Address correspondence to Björn Trolldal, SoRAD, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden; Fax: +46-8-674-7686, E-mail: bjorn.trolldal@sorad.su.se.

Summary: This study tested the hypothesis that a regulated market leads to higher transaction costs associated with purchasing alcohol, which in turn increases the full price of the beverages (the nominal cash price plus transaction costs). As a result, the cash price of alcohol represents a smaller part of the full price in a highly regulated market. Assuming that customers respond primarily to changes in full price, the demand for alcohol should be less sensitive to changes in cash price where regulation is stricter. The study examined whether variations in price elasticities were a function of the different regulatory systems in control and license states in the United States during the 18-year period 1982-1999. Time-series cross-sectional analyses in 50 states were conducted. Elasticities were estimated using a multiplicative model based upon first-differences of time-series within states. Disposable income and other sociodemographic variables were used as control variables. All data were obtained from archival sources. Demand for spirits and beer was significantly more sensitive to price changes in license states than in control states. The estimated price elasticity for wine sales was also somewhat larger in license states, but not significantly so. The lower price elasticities for spirits and beer in the control states support the hypothesis that customers respond primarily to changes in the full price of alcohol. NIAAA Glossary Terms:  hypothesis testing, AOD price, legal regulation, economic elasticity, license control, time series analysis, cross-sectional study, demographic characteristics, socioeconomic status, distilled alcoholic beverage, beer, wine, controlled study, comparative study, human study

Xavier Sánchez-Carbonell, Elena Guardiola, Ana Bellés, and Marta Beranuy.  European Union scientific production on alcohol and drug misuse (1976-2000).  Addiction 100(8):1166, August 2005.

Address correspondence to Xavier Sánchez-Carbonell, Facultat de Psicologia, Ciències de l'Educació i de l'Esport  Blanquerna, Universitat Ramon Llull, Císter 34, 08022 Barcelona, Spain; Tel: +34 93,253 32 62; E-mail: xaviersc@blanquerna.url.es.

Summary: Scientific production on alcohol and drug misuse was analyzed and compared among member countries of the European Union (EU), based on articles published during 1976-2000 and indexed by PsycINFO. A total of 4,825 citations was retrieved. Great Britain published 38.6%, while Sweden, Germany, and Spain accounted for a further 30%. The articles dealt with drug and alcohol use (12.8%), substance abuse (53.5%), and drug and alcohol rehabilitation (34.5%). Articles were published in 13 different languages, but more than three-fourths were in English. Spanish was the second language, followed by French, German, Dutch, and Italian. The articles were published in 521 different journals, and 62 of these published more than 10 articles. The journals publishing most were Addiction, Alcohol and Alcoholism, and Drug and Alcohol Dependence. Sixty-eight percent of the articles were signed by more than one author, and the index of collaboration between 1996 and 2000 was 3.24. The number of publications in the EU on alcohol and drug misuse increased over the last 25 years of the twentieth century. The most used language was English, as it also is for PsycINFO as a whole, and a tendency towards its increased use was observed. Classification of the articles by subject by the Classification Code is too general, and makes it difficult to distinguish between the areas it proposes. Production tends to be concentrated in journals dealing specifically with drug dependence and psychiatry. The index of collaboration is similar to that found in other scientific areas. NIAAA Glossary Terms:  AOD use, AOD abuse, European Union, research, United Kingdom, Sweden, Germany, Spain, Italy, AODD rehabilitation, database, human study

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Samantha Wells, Kathryn Graham, Mark Speechley, and John J. Koval.  Drinking patterns, drinking contexts and alcohol-related aggression among late adolescent and young adult drinkers.  Addiction 100(7):933, July 2005.

Summary: A secondary analysis of the US National Longitudinal Survey of Youth was conducted to determine: (1) the relative roles of heavy episodic drinking (HED), drinking frequency, and drinking volume in explaining alcohol-related aggression and (2) whether drinking context variables confound or modify the relationship between HED and alcohol-related aggression or whether they predict alcohol-related aggression independently. Alcohol-related aggression was measured based on self-reports of arguments or fights that occurred during or after drinking in the previous 12 months. The participants were a composite sample of drinkers, ages 17-21, from the 1994, 1996, and 1998 Young Adult Surveys (N = 738). It was found that the association between HED and fights after drinking was largely confounded by frequency of drinking and drinking volume. Usually drinking in public locations, rather than in private locations, was significantly associated with a greater likelihood of fights after drinking among females. Among males, the relationship between drinking frequency and alcohol-related aggression was modified by usual drinking location, with the risk of aggression greatest for those who drank frequently and usually in public locations. The authors suggest that programs designed to reduce drinking frequency in this population and to increase the safety of public drinking locations may prove beneficial in reducing alcohol-related aggression. NIAAA Glossary Terms:  AOD use pattern, AOD use frequency, binge AOD use, AOD intake per occasion, AODR behavioral problem, interpersonal AODR problems, aggressive behavior, confounding variable, self report, drinking venue, gender differences, survey, adolescent, young adult, human study

Nick Heather and Sharon Dawe.  Level of impaired control predicts outcome of moderation-oriented treatment for alcohol problems.  Addiction 100(7):945, July 2005.

Summary: This prospective follow-up study examined the predictive ability of the Impaired Control Scale (ICS) for outcome of moderation-oriented treatment for alcohol problems and directly compared its predictive ability with that of the widely used Severity of Alcohol Dependence Questionnaire (SADQ). The study, which was carried out in outpatient treatment centers, involved a combined sample of problem drinkers (N = 154) taking part in two clinical trials of moderation-oriented cue exposure in the United Kingdom and Australia. After treatment was concluded, clients were followed-up 6 months in the UK and 8 months in Australia. Outcome was assessed by combining drinking behavior at follow-up with changes on the Alcohol Problems Questionnaire from before treatment to follow-up. With control for research site, baseline scores on Part 2 of the ICS (substitution method) and the SADQ-C were entered in logistic regression analyses with three outcome dichotomies as dependent variables. Five percent of clients were abstinent at follow-up, 13% were non-problem drinkers, 25% were much improved, 24% somewhat improved, and 34% unimproved. Treatment location and ICS2 scores significantly predicted whether or not clients achieved a successful outcome (abstinence or non-problem drinking). Using a cut-point of 25 on the ICS, two-thirds of outcomes were classified correctly as successes or failures. SADQ-C score was not a significant predictor of treatment outcome. The authors conclude that the ICS predicts outcome of moderation-oriented treatment among moderately dependent problem drinkers and recommend that the SADQ be replaced by the ICS as the basis for advising problem drinkers on whether or not they should pursue moderation as a treatment goal. NIAAA Glossary Terms:  problematic AOD use, AOD dependence, psychiatric status rating scales, treatment outcome, predictive factor, treatment goals, moderate AOD use, AOD abstinence, AOD use behavior, prospective study, follow-up study, clinical trial, questionnaire, regression analysis, evaluation study, human study

Peter R. Finn, Lyuba Bobova, Elizabeth Wehner, Susan Fargo, and Martin E. Rickert.  Alcohol expectancies, conduct disorder and early-onset alcoholism: negative alcohol expectancies are associated with less drinking in non-impulsive versus impulsive subjects.  Addiction 100(7):953, July 2005.

Summary: Research suggests that excessive alcohol drinking is promoted by positive alcohol expectancies and discouraged by negative alcohol expectancies. Evidence also suggests that disinhibitory characteristics such as conduct disorder and impulsivity are associated with a general neglect of long-term negative outcomes. This study assessed whether negative expectancies are associated more strongly with lower levels of alcohol use in low-impulsive individuals than in high-impulsive individuals. Positive and negative alcohol expectancies, alcohol use, and impulsivity were assessed in a sample of 99 young adults with alcohol dependence (AD) and conduct disorder (CD), 77 with AD and no CD, and 124 controls. Compared to AD-only and control subjects, AD-CD subjects had higher proximal (same day) and distal (next day) negative alcohol expectancies, even though they drank more alcohol. Distal negative expectancies were associated more strongly with lower drinking levels in low-impulsive subjects than in high-impulsive subjects. Proximal negative expectancies were associated more strongly with greater alcohol consumption in high-impulsive subjects than low-impulsive subjects. It was concluded that impulsivity and conduct disorder may be important factors in determining the degree to which distal negative alcohol expectancies may discourage excessive alcohol consumption. NIAAA Glossary Terms:  AOD expectancies, AOD dependence, heavy AOD use, conduct disorder, impulsive behavior, AOD consumption, controlled study, young adult, comparative study, human study

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Mats Berglund.  A